Valor in the Midst of Oppression: A History of Black Veterans in the United States - Part 4
Valor in the Midst of Oppression: A History of Black Veterans in the United States - Part 4
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A. Phillip Randolph
On 28 July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia marking the beginning of the Great War and on 6 April 1917 President Woodrow Wilson signed the formal war declaration thus entering the United States into the global conflict.
On 28 July 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia marking the beginning of the Great War and on 6 April 1917 President Woodrow Wilson signed the formal war declaration thus entering the United States into the global conflict.
Blacks were divided on whether they should join the armed services to fight for a country that did not view them as full citizens. Influential activist A. Phillip Randolph vehemently opposed Blacks joining the war effort with the reason being that Blacks had participated in every American war since the American Revolution and still had obtained full citizenship. He believed that the war was an imperialist conflict and it would be more prudent for Blacks to stay on the homefront and continue the fight for civil rights and equality. When President Wilson addressed congress in April 1917 seeking congressional approval to enter the war, he declared that the “world must be made safe for democracy.” Randolph responded in the pages of the Black magazine The Messenger, “We would rather make Georgia safe for the Negro.”
Blacks were divided on whether they should join the armed services to fight for a country that did not view them as full citizens. Influential activist A. Phillip Randolph vehemently opposed Blacks joining the war effort with the reason being that Blacks had participated in every American war since the American Revolution and still had obtained full citizenship. He believed that the war was an imperialist conflict and it would be more prudent for Blacks to stay on the homefront and continue the fight for civil rights and equality. When President Wilson addressed congress in April 1917 seeking congressional approval to enter the war, he declared that the “world must be made safe for democracy.” Randolph responded in the pages of the Black magazine The Messenger, “We would rather make Georgia safe for the Negro.”
However, sociologist and co-founder of the NAACP, W.E.B. DuBois initially urged Blacks to join the war effort. He wrote, “while the war lasts, [Blacks should] forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to shoulder with our white fellow citizens and allied nations that are fighting for democracy.” DuBois thought that military sacrifice would force the nation to recognize Blacks as equal and treat them as full citizens. At the war’s conclusion he travelled to France and investigated the accounts of racism that occurred in the ranks of the US military. When DuBois returned, he wrote his well-known essay “Returning Soldiers”, where he urged Black veterans to continue the struggle for equality in the US.
However, sociologist and co-founder of the NAACP, W.E.B. DuBois initially urged Blacks to join the war effort. He wrote, “while the war lasts, [Blacks should] forget our special grievances and close our ranks shoulder to shoulder with our white fellow citizens and allied nations that are fighting for democracy.” DuBois thought that military sacrifice would force the nation to recognize Blacks as equal and treat them as full citizens. At the war’s conclusion he travelled to France and investigated the accounts of racism that occurred in the ranks of the US military. When DuBois returned, he wrote his well-known essay “Returning Soldiers”, where he urged Black veterans to continue the struggle for equality in the US.
“We return. We return from fighting. We return fighting.” – W.E.B. DuBois
“We return. We return from fighting. We return fighting.” – W.E.B. DuBois
W.E.B. DuBois
The Harlem Hellfighters
Approximately 380,000 Blacks served in War World I. They mostly served as laborers, responsible for loading cargo, cooking, and cleaning. There were, however, two combat divisions, the 92nd and 93rd divisions. Most of the 92nd remained attached to the US Army in France and they experienced extreme racism and discrimination from the White US soldiers that they were fighting alongside. The 93rd was attached to the French army to replace the many losses that the French accumulated over the course of the conflict.
Approximately 380,000 Blacks served in War World I. They mostly served as laborers, responsible for loading cargo, cooking, and cleaning. There were, however, two combat divisions, the 92nd and 93rd divisions. Most of the 92nd remained attached to the US Army in France and they experienced extreme racism and discrimination from the White US soldiers that they were fighting alongside. The 93rd was attached to the French army to replace the many losses that the French accumulated over the course of the conflict.
The 369th Infantry, better known as the Harlem Hellfighters, was the most well-known regiment from the 93rd. The Harlem Hellfighters spent 191 days in continuous combat, which is the longest of any American unit during the war. During that long period of fighting, they never lost a single trench or even relinquished an inch of ground to the German army. The account of Henry Johnson was indicative of the bravery and tenacity of Black soldiers on the battlefield and the inhumane treatment when they returned home.
The 369th Infantry, better known as the Harlem Hellfighters, was the most well-known regiment from the 93rd. The Harlem Hellfighters spent 191 days in continuous combat, which is the longest of any American unit during the war. During that long period of fighting, they never lost a single trench or even relinquished an inch of ground to the German army. The account of Henry Johnson was indicative of the bravery and tenacity of Black soldiers on the battlefield and the inhumane treatment when they returned home.
Henry Johnson
On the evening of May 14, 1918, Henry Johnson and fellow soldier Needham Roberts, had observation-post duty forward of the main line. About 2 a.m. on May 15, Johnson and Roberts saw approximately 25 German soldiers approaching their position. They soon engaged in fierce hand-to-hand combat with the Germans. Roberts was severely injured in the initial assault however; he continued to supply Johnson with ammunition. Leaving the cover of his position, Johnson used his gun as a club and his bolo knife when he ran out of bullets. Johnson saw two German soldiers trying to capture the injured Roberts and managed to prevent them carrying him off. Both Roberts and Johnson sustained severe wounds. The Germans took heavy casualties and retreated before French reinforcements eventually arrived and evacuated both men to an aid station behind the main lines. During the battle, Johnson received 21 wounds. It is estimated that he killed four Germans and wounded up to 20 others. Johnson earned the nickname “Black Death” from the French for his fighting. Henry Johnson was the first American awarded France’s highest award for valor the Croix de Guerre avec Palme.
On the evening of May 14, 1918, Henry Johnson and fellow soldier Needham Roberts, had observation-post duty forward of the main line. About 2 a.m. on May 15, Johnson and Roberts saw approximately 25 German soldiers approaching their position. They soon engaged in fierce hand-to-hand combat with the Germans. Roberts was severely injured in the initial assault however; he continued to supply Johnson with ammunition. Leaving the cover of his position, Johnson used his gun as a club and his bolo knife when he ran out of bullets. Johnson saw two German soldiers trying to capture the injured Roberts and managed to prevent them carrying him off. Both Roberts and Johnson sustained severe wounds. The Germans took heavy casualties and retreated before French reinforcements eventually arrived and evacuated both men to an aid station behind the main lines. During the battle, Johnson received 21 wounds. It is estimated that he killed four Germans and wounded up to 20 others. Johnson earned the nickname “Black Death” from the French for his fighting. Henry Johnson was the first American awarded France’s highest award for valor the Croix de Guerre avec Palme.
Needham Roberts
When Johnson returned to the US in February 1919 things were different. At first the 369th received a victory parade. The unit marched on 5th Avenue and Johnson rode in an open top car, as he was almost completely disabled from his injuries, waved to the crowd. The government used Henry Johnson’s heroic act of bravery and his image to recruit young Black men into the Army and to sell victory stamps. Johnson was outspoken about the unequal treatment that Black men received from their supposed brothers-in-arms and the lack of medical care and other assistance for wounded Black soldiers. Despite his valiant acts in service of the US, he was discharged with no disability pay. Johnson’s life fell apart quickly, he battled alcoholism, he lost his marriage and died in poverty and completely alone in 1929 at only 32 years old.
When Johnson returned to the US in February 1919 things were different. At first the 369th received a victory parade. The unit marched on 5th Avenue and Johnson rode in an open top car, as he was almost completely disabled from his injuries, waved to the crowd. The government used Henry Johnson’s heroic act of bravery and his image to recruit young Black men into the Army and to sell victory stamps. Johnson was outspoken about the unequal treatment that Black men received from their supposed brothers-in-arms and the lack of medical care and other assistance for wounded Black soldiers. Despite his valiant acts in service of the US, he was discharged with no disability pay. Johnson’s life fell apart quickly, he battled alcoholism, he lost his marriage and died in poverty and completely alone in 1929 at only 32 years old.
Wounded men of the 369th division ride during the Harlem Parade following the end of the war in 1919
The Black soldiers that returned home faced incredible hardships and the thing that many thought would give them a modicum of respect – their uniform – became a target for violent White supremacists to shoot at, literally. An article titled “Nip It In the Bud” published in the True Democrat a Louisiana newspaper in 1918 after the lynching of a Black veteran perfectly described the views of Whites towards the returning Black veterans:
The Black soldiers that returned home faced incredible hardships and the thing that many thought would give them a modicum of respect – their uniform – became a target for violent White supremacists to shoot at, literally. An article titled “Nip It In the Bud” published in the True Democrat a Louisiana newspaper in 1918 after the lynching of a Black veteran perfectly described the views of Whites towards the returning Black veterans:
“The root of the trouble was that the negro thought that being a soldier he was not subject to civil authority… The incident is a portent of what may be expected in the future as more of the negro soldiery return to civil life…[military service had] probably given these men more exalted ideas of their station in life than really exists, and having these ideas they will be guilty of many acts of self-assertion, arrogance, and insolence…there will be much friction before they sink back into their old groove, and accept the fact that social equality will never be accepted in the South… this is the right time to show them what will and what will not be permitted, and thus save them much trouble in the future.”
“The root of the trouble was that the negro thought that being a soldier he was not subject to civil authority… The incident is a portent of what may be expected in the future as more of the negro soldiery return to civil life…[military service had] probably given these men more exalted ideas of their station in life than really exists, and having these ideas they will be guilty of many acts of self-assertion, arrogance, and insolence…there will be much friction before they sink back into their old groove, and accept the fact that social equality will never be accepted in the South… this is the right time to show them what will and what will not be permitted, and thus save them much trouble in the future.”
On 2 November 1919 A first lieutenant and chaplain George A. Thomas was attacked for wearing “Uncle Sam’s uniform.”
On 2 November 1919 A first lieutenant and chaplain George A. Thomas was attacked for wearing “Uncle Sam’s uniform.”
Ely Green was driving in downtown Waxahachie, Texas while wearing his uniform. He was stopped by a sheriff’s deputy who threatened to tear the uniform off him. The deputy and three other officers pulled Green from his vehicle and dragged him a block down the street and began beating him with their fists and pistol-whipping him. A large crowd gathered to watch the attack. They were about to shoot him when a prominent white man that knew Green drove by, noticed what was going on, and halted the attack. Ely Green left Texas and didn’t return for 40 years.
Ely Green was driving in downtown Waxahachie, Texas while wearing his uniform. He was stopped by a sheriff’s deputy who threatened to tear the uniform off him. The deputy and three other officers pulled Green from his vehicle and dragged him a block down the street and began beating him with their fists and pistol-whipping him. A large crowd gathered to watch the attack. They were about to shoot him when a prominent white man that knew Green drove by, noticed what was going on, and halted the attack. Ely Green left Texas and didn’t return for 40 years.
Black officers of the 366th Regiment, 92nd Division on their return to the United States in February 1919. The creation of black combat units also saw the creation of the first black officers, as it was felt men were more likely to follow somebody of their own race into the fighting
Members of the 369th Regiment wearing French Adrian Helmets, taken in France, circa 1917. These men are likely from the 93rd Division, which was 'loaned' to the French Army because American units were still wary of African Americans being involved in combat
On 5 April 1919 Daniel Mack a 24-year-old Black veteran accidently brushed up against a White man in Sylvester, Georgia. The White man got angry and a confrontation followed. Mack was arrested. At his arraignment hearing Mack stated, “I fought for you in France to make the world safe for democracy. I don’t think you’ve treated me right in putting me in jail and keeping me there, because I’ve got as much right as anyone to walk on the sidewalk.” The judge replied, “This is a white man’s country and you don’t want to forget it.” Then he sentenced Mack to 30 days on a chain gang. On 14 April 1919 while serving his sentence four armed men broke into his cell and kidnapped him and brought him to the edge of town and beat him severely before leaving him for dead. Mack was able to make it to the home of a Black family that lived nearby despite multiple skull fractures. The family helped him escape town.
On 5 April 1919 Daniel Mack a 24-year-old Black veteran accidently brushed up against a White man in Sylvester, Georgia. The White man got angry and a confrontation followed. Mack was arrested. At his arraignment hearing Mack stated, “I fought for you in France to make the world safe for democracy. I don’t think you’ve treated me right in putting me in jail and keeping me there, because I’ve got as much right as anyone to walk on the sidewalk.” The judge replied, “This is a white man’s country and you don’t want to forget it.” Then he sentenced Mack to 30 days on a chain gang. On 14 April 1919 while serving his sentence four armed men broke into his cell and kidnapped him and brought him to the edge of town and beat him severely before leaving him for dead. Mack was able to make it to the home of a Black family that lived nearby despite multiple skull fractures. The family helped him escape town.
On 16 December 1918 Private Charles Lewis was at home in Tyler Station, Kentucky after returning from the war a month prior. He was falsely accused of robbery by deputy sheriff Al Thomas. Sheriff Thomas tried to arrest Lewis who was in uniform. Lewis pointed at said uniform and stated that he was honorably discharged and that he committed no crime. Private Lewis was charged with assault and resisting arrest for verbally defending himself. As news that a Black man had the audacity to challenge White authority spread a large mob of over 75 people began to form. Masked men stormed the jail and pulled Lewis from his cell and hanged him from a tree. The next day his body, still in uniform was hanging from the tree where hundreds of white spectators came to view the disturbing sight.
On 16 December 1918 Private Charles Lewis was at home in Tyler Station, Kentucky after returning from the war a month prior. He was falsely accused of robbery by deputy sheriff Al Thomas. Sheriff Thomas tried to arrest Lewis who was in uniform. Lewis pointed at said uniform and stated that he was honorably discharged and that he committed no crime. Private Lewis was charged with assault and resisting arrest for verbally defending himself. As news that a Black man had the audacity to challenge White authority spread a large mob of over 75 people began to form. Masked men stormed the jail and pulled Lewis from his cell and hanged him from a tree. The next day his body, still in uniform was hanging from the tree where hundreds of white spectators came to view the disturbing sight.
On 15 July 1919 in Louise, Mississippi, 18-year-old Black veteran Robert Truett was hung by Whites because he allegedly made “indecent proposals” to a White woman.
On 15 July 1919 in Louise, Mississippi, 18-year-old Black veteran Robert Truett was hung by Whites because he allegedly made “indecent proposals” to a White woman.
African American troops arriving in France, circa 1917. These men would have been among the first black soldiers allowed to fight on the front lines after the creation of the first mostly-black combat units, the 92nd and 93rd infantry, in this year
Members of the 367th Regiment, the 'Buffaloes', are presented with colors in front of the Union League Club, New York City. Many Black regiments had Buffalo as part of their nickname after the original Buffalo Soldiers who fought in the Indian Wars/ The Native Americans gave them the name for their courage and skill in battle
On 10 September in Clarksdale, Mississippi, Black veteran L.B. Reed was hung from a bridge across the Sunflower river because he was accused of having a relationship with a white woman that frequented the restaurant where he was working at the time.
On 10 September in Clarksdale, Mississippi, Black veteran L.B. Reed was hung from a bridge across the Sunflower river because he was accused of having a relationship with a white woman that frequented the restaurant where he was working at the time.
On 3 August 1919 in Lincoln, Arkansas, Black veteran Clinton Briggs was lynched by a mob because he “insulted” a White woman. The insult? He moved to slowly out of her way as she tried to walk past him. A mob grabbed him, threw him into a car, drove him to wilderness of Lincoln County and filled his body with bullets.
On 3 August 1919 in Lincoln, Arkansas, Black veteran Clinton Briggs was lynched by a mob because he “insulted” a White woman. The insult? He moved to slowly out of her way as she tried to walk past him. A mob grabbed him, threw him into a car, drove him to wilderness of Lincoln County and filled his body with bullets.
On 21 May 1919 in El Dorado, Arkansas, Black veteran Frank Livingston was accused of murdering the White couple that he worked for. A mob of White men snatched him up and began beating and torturing him until he allegedly confessed to the double murder. With no investigation or trial a crowd of 100 people gathered the next day and burned Livingston alive. After he was dead the sheriff arrived while the perpetrators were still on the scene yet he refused to make an arrest.
On 21 May 1919 in El Dorado, Arkansas, Black veteran Frank Livingston was accused of murdering the White couple that he worked for. A mob of White men snatched him up and began beating and torturing him until he allegedly confessed to the double murder. With no investigation or trial a crowd of 100 people gathered the next day and burned Livingston alive. After he was dead the sheriff arrived while the perpetrators were still on the scene yet he refused to make an arrest.
On 12 March 1919 Black veteran Bud Johnson was in Florida where he had just buried his father. While he was outside of Jacksonville, Florida waiting to board a steamboat home to Alabama he was approached by a local county sheriff with bloodhounds and was arrested because he supposedly matched the description of a man that attacked a White woman in nearby Pace, Florida. As he was being transported to Jacksonville a mob caught up to the police car and took Johnson to Pace. Once there he was tortured, chained to a stake, burned alive, and then had his skull crushed with a hatchet. Pieces of his skull along with the $66 in his pockets were distributed among the crowd. Johnson’s family had to fight against the alligators to retrieve his body.
On 12 March 1919 Black veteran Bud Johnson was in Florida where he had just buried his father. While he was outside of Jacksonville, Florida waiting to board a steamboat home to Alabama he was approached by a local county sheriff with bloodhounds and was arrested because he supposedly matched the description of a man that attacked a White woman in nearby Pace, Florida. As he was being transported to Jacksonville a mob caught up to the police car and took Johnson to Pace. Once there he was tortured, chained to a stake, burned alive, and then had his skull crushed with a hatchet. Pieces of his skull along with the $66 in his pockets were distributed among the crowd. Johnson’s family had to fight against the alligators to retrieve his body.
On 31 August 1919 in Bogalusa, Louisiana Black veteran Lucius McCarty was accused of trying to assault a White woman. A mob of 1500 people gathered and shot him over 1000 times and then dragged his mutilated body through the streets of the Black neighborhood. The bloodthirsty crowd then burned his corpse on a bonfire.
On 31 August 1919 in Bogalusa, Louisiana Black veteran Lucius McCarty was accused of trying to assault a White woman. A mob of 1500 people gathered and shot him over 1000 times and then dragged his mutilated body through the streets of the Black neighborhood. The bloodthirsty crowd then burned his corpse on a bonfire.
On 27 December 1919 police officers were transporting Black veteran Powell Green to jail; he had been accused of shooting the White owner of a movie theater. A mob overpowered the officers and kidnapped Green. They tied a rope around Green’s neck and dragged him behind a car for two miles then they hung him from a tree. Throughout the night the entire town fought over pieces of Green’s clothing and the tree that he was hung from.
Privates Robinson Cleve of the 539th Engineers, and Daniel Nelson of the 372nd Infantry Regiment, both wounded in action, pose with war dogs Crown Prince and Kaiser Bill on their return to the US from the First World War.
African American men enlisting at the 'Colored' Y.M.C.A. for the 'Negro' Officers' Training Camp at Fort Des Moines
On 30 May 1921 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, Dick Rowland, a young Black man was falsely accused of assaulting a white woman who was working as an elevator operator. Rowland was arrested and a white mob started to form at the courthouse with the intention of lynching Rowland. A group of armed black World War I veterans arrived at the courthouse to protect Rowland. Over the next two days the White mob invaded the Black Greenwood neighborhood shooting Black citizens and burning the entire neighborhood to the ground. There were White World War I veterans in uniform shooting and killing Black World War I veterans who were also in uniform. The White mob got a hold of an airplane and firebombed the Black neighborhood. Over 300 hundred Black people were killed in the massacre and over 10,000 were left homeless.
On 30 May 1921 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, Dick Rowland, a young Black man was falsely accused of assaulting a white woman who was working as an elevator operator. Rowland was arrested and a white mob started to form at the courthouse with the intention of lynching Rowland. A group of armed black World War I veterans arrived at the courthouse to protect Rowland. Over the next two days the White mob invaded the Black Greenwood neighborhood shooting Black citizens and burning the entire neighborhood to the ground. There were White World War I veterans in uniform shooting and killing Black World War I veterans who were also in uniform. The White mob got a hold of an airplane and firebombed the Black neighborhood. Over 300 hundred Black people were killed in the massacre and over 10,000 were left homeless.
Black veterans fought to serve the country. They served the country with excellence and valor. They returned home hoping that their countrymen would recognize their incredible sacrifice. Instead they were met with unimaginable violence and terror.
Black veterans fought to serve the country. They served the country with excellence and valor. They returned home hoping that their countrymen would recognize their incredible sacrifice. Instead they were met with unimaginable violence and terror.
In the next part we will go into the Black veterans that served in the second World War and their continued fight to be treated with dignity.
In the next part we will go into the Black veterans that served in the second World War and their continued fight to be treated with dignity.
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