Valor in the Midst of Oppression: A History of Black Veterans in the United States - Part 5

After the end of the Great War the world was left in a powder keg, primed for an explosion into another global conflict. There are many intricacies to the events that led up to this next conflict but on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland and this prompted France and Great Britain to declare war on Germany on 3 September 1939. On 7 December 1941 the empire of Japan launched an attack on the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, bringing the United States into the second world war.

Miller in 1942 after receiving the Navy Cross

During the attack on Pearl Harbor a mess attendant (one of the few jobs that Black sailors were allowed to be assigned) named Doris “Dorie” Miller was working on the USS West Virginia when the attack began. Despite enemy fire he left his position of cover to move his captain that was mortally wounded to a more secure location. Miller then manned an anti-aircraft machine gun, despite not having any prior experience on the weapon he returned fire toward the enemy shooting down anywhere from two to four Japanese aircraft. After running out of ammunition Miller began to help move several injured sailors through the oily water as the ship began to slowly sink. On 27 May 1942 Dorie Miller was awarded the Navy Cross becoming the first Black American to receive the honor. Michigan congressman John Dingell Sr. and New York senator James Mead introduced legislation to award Miller with the Medal of Honor, the highest award for valor in the United States. However, the Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, who opposed Black sailors serving in the United States armed forces, recommended against Miller receiving the Medal of Honor.

Over 1.2 million Black Americans served in the United States armed forces during World War II. Most Black Americans were in the Army (885,945), but after President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued executive order 8802 on 25 June 1941 the other branches were no longer allowed to prevent Black Americans from joining. Because of the 1925 Army War College Report titled: The Use of Negro Manpower in War, Black Americans were considered mentally inferior and cowardly, and thus unsuited for combat and leadership positions in the U.S. Armed Forces. Despite these racist views heavily influencing military leaders Black Americans participated in all aspects of the fight. They served in the European theatre, the Pacific theatre, and North Africa. They flew planes, operated tanks, commanded submarines, stormed the beaches at Normandy, transported supplies, delivered the mail, and many more important jobs that contributed to the Allied victory.

Executive Order 8802

Members of the 332nd Fighter Group in a mission briefing, Ramitelli, Italy, 1945

Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr., 1942

The 99th Pursuit Squadron and 332nd Fighter Group known collectively as the Tuskegee Airmen. The 99th supported the Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy in the summer of 1943. By the middle of 1944 the 99th merged with the 332nd to escort bombers. The 332nd never lost a bomber to enemy fire during their 100+ escort missions. They were known as the Red Tails because of the distinctive red paint on the tails of their aircraft. The U.S. bomber pilots also referred to them as the Red angels or Red-tailed Angels because of their record of keeping bombers safe from enemy fire. The German Luftwaffe (Air Force) refer to them as “Die Schwarze Vogelmenschen” or “the Black Birdmen” out of respect for their aggressive and impressive flying during long range bomber missions in the skies of Europe.

Tuskegee airmen attending a briefing in Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945

Members of the 332nd Fighter Group in a mission briefing, Ramitelli, Italy, 1945

Shoulder sleeve patch of the United States 761st Tank Battalion

Capt. Ivan Harrison, Capt. Irvin McHenry, and 2nd Lt. James Lightfoot of the 761st Tank Battalion. Courtesy US Army.

An M5 Stuart light tank of the 761st Tank Battalion in Coburg, Germany, 1945. Courtesy of the National Archives

The 761st Tank Battalion known as the Black Panthers was the first all-Black tank unit to see combat in the European theatre. Jackie Robinson was an officer in this unit however, he did not deploy to Europe with them because he refused to move to the back of a segregated military bus at Fort Hood and was court-martialed. The Black Panthers were initially not going to be used in combat because of racist ideas about the ability and bravery of Black Americans but there were so many casualties that they were attached to General George S.Patton’s Third Army and thrust into combat in November 1944. Patton gave a famous pep talk to Black soldiers saying:

Men, you're the first Negro tankers to ever fight in the American Army. I would never have asked for you if you weren't good. I have nothing but the best in my Army. I don't care what color you are as long as you go up there and kill those Kraut sonsofbitches. Everyone has their eyes on you and is expecting great things from you. Most of all your race is looking forward to your success. Don't let them down and damn you, don't let me down!

Although this pep talk is inspiring in private Patton had doubts about the abilities of the battalion. The 761st captured the France town Morville-les-Vic which had been held by the Germans. Captain John D. Long, a Black officer in the that led men in the battle had this to say about the unit:

Not for God and country but for me and my people. This was my motivation pure and simple when I entered the army. I swore to myself there would never be a headline saying my men and I chickened. A soldier, in time of war, is supposed to accept the idea of dying. That’s what he’s there for; live with it and forget it. I expected to get killed, but whatever happened I was determined to die an officer and a gentleman. . . . The town of Morville-les-Vic was supposed to be a snap but it was an inferno; my men were tigers, they fought like seasoned veterans. We got our lumps but we took that f***ing town.

Jackie Robinson (1919-during his wartime service as a second lieutenant in the United States Army, circa 1943

The 761st Tank Battalion prepares for combat. Courtesy US Army.

A Sherman tank of the 761st Tank Battalion. Courtesy US Army.

Members of the 320th Barrage Balloon Battalion

The 320th Barrage Balloon Battalion was the only all-Black unit to land on the beaches of Normandy on 6 June 1944, D-Day. Their mission was to raise hydrogen-filled barrage balloons to protect the assaulting Allied infantry and armor from being strafed by the German Luftwaffe. There were about 600 Black soldiers that were a part of this group. After the initial beach landings were successful some of the 320th moved inland but the majority of the unit remained on the beach until October 1944 to support the continued landings of more troops and supplies. At the end of October they were sent back to the United States to begin training to support a potential amphibious landing on the shores of mainland Japan however, the war ended before they were sent to the Pacific theatre.

Mooring of a barrage balloon on the coast of Normandy, 1944.

Soldiers of the 4185th Quartermaster Service Company loading Red Ball Express truck, Liège, Belgium, 1944

The Red Ball Express was a convoy system that supplied the frontlines after the Normandy invasion. About three-fourths of the drivers were Black American soldiers, including Medgar Evers. At its peak the convoy system operated 5958 vehicles and transported 12,500 tons of supplies every day. The Red Ball Express motto became the French phrase “tout de suite” meaning “immediately, right now”. Supreme Allied commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the convoy the lifeline of the European theatre.

Medgar Evers in uniform

Enlisted crewmembers of the USS Mason standing on the bow in their dress blue uniforms in New York City, NY. Out of a crew of 204, 160 of the sailors on Mason were African Americans. Courtesy of the National Archives.

The USS Mason (DE-529) was the first naval fleet vessel with a predominately Black American crew (160 of 204). The officer and Chief Petty officer positions were reserved for white sailors and they were segregated in their own quarters for sleeping and eating. For 11 months spanning from June 1944 to the end of the war the Mason escorted cargo ships and guarding against German submarine attacks in the Atlantic Ocean. The sailors aboard the Mason were not recognized for their service until 1995.

Chief Gunner’s Mate Rex Ashley instructs future Mason crewmembers GM3c Albert A. Davis, GM2c Frank Wood, and GM2c Warren Vincent on the 20mm Oerlikon machinegun. Courtesy of the National Archives.

The Golden Thirteen, the first African-American U.S. Navy Officers. Photographed 17 March 1944. They are (bottom row, left to right): Ensign James E. Hare, USNR; Ensign Samuel E. Barnes, USNR; Ensign George C. Cooper, USNR; Ensign William S. White, USNR; Ensign Dennis D. Nelson, USNR; (middle row, left to right): Ensign Graham E. Martin, USNR; Warrant Officer Charles B. Lear, USNR; Ensign Phillip G. Barnes, USNR; Ensign Reginald E. Goodwin, USNR; (top row, left to right): Ensign John W. Reagan, USNR; Ensign Jesse W. Arbor, USNR; Ensign Dalton L. Baugh, USNR; Ensign Frank E. Sublett, USNR. Courtesy of Surface Warfare Magazine, 1982. U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command Photograph.

In 1944 there were over 100,000 Black American sailors in the United States Navy however none of them were officers. A group of 16 men was assembled in order to test whether Black men could stand up to the scrutiny of naval officer candidacy training. Normally the officer’s course is 16 weeks long however, the group of 16 only had eight weeks to complete the entirety of the training. Many in the Black community believed that the shortened timeframe was a purposeful way to ensure that the men would fail. Regardless of the hurdles set before them all 16 men completed the training with higher scores than their white counterparts. Even though all the men completed the training only 13 were commissioned there was never an explanation given for why all the men were not made into officers, many believe that the reason was to bring the success rate of the Black men down to the average white class’ level. The men that did receive their commissions became known as the Golden 13.

Alfred Masters

Howard P. Perry

On 1 June 1942 Alfred Masters enlisted as the first Black recruit in the United States Marine Corps and on 26 August 1942 Howard P. Perry was the first Black American to arrive at recruit training in Jacksonville, North Carolina. Black recruits began training at Montford Point where they endured harsh racism from the locals and from their white drill instructors. They also had to deal with substandard facilities yet they exceeded all expectations. Montford Point Marines were known for their discipline and dedication. Most of the 13,000 Black Marines that were deployed overseas were sent to fill combat support roles in the Pacific theatre. They worked to supply ammunition to the combat units, as mechanics, and cooks. Despite not being assigned combat roles these men participated in combat and fought bravely in Saipan, Guam, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.

A rare image showing Black Marines mixing with their white counterparts, on the Peleliu front line in September 1944. Courtesy of the USMC

Black American Marines on Iwo Jima; February/March 1945. Courtesy of the USMC

Major Charity Adams and Captain Mary Kearney inspect the first contingent of the 6888th to arrive in England on February 15, 1945. Courtesy of the National Archives

The 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion parades at the marketplace in Rouen, France on May 27, 1945. Courtesy of the National Archives

Black women were a critical part of the war effort as well. The Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) was established by President Roosevelt on 15 May 1942. The very first class of women enlisted in the WAAC had 40 Black women alongside 400 white women. The first Black woman to be commissioned as an officer in the Army was Charity Adams in 1942. In January 1945 Adams was assigned to be the commanding officer of the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion, the first unit comprised of all Black women. This unit was also the only all Black female unit to deploy overseas in Europe during World War II. The Six-Triple-Eight was responsible for the delivery of over a million pieces of mail to troops on the battlefield and families back home. By the end of the war Lieutenant Colonel Charity Adams was the highest ranking Black American woman in the entire Armed Forces.

Harriet Pickens and Frances Wills became the first African American WAVES officers. courtesy of Naval History and Heritage Command.

Despite pressure from the first lady Elenor Roosevelt and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) The secretary of the Navy William Knox resisted Black women joining the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service or WAVES for two years but then he died from a heart attack in April 1944. The last hurdle preventing Black women from joining was gone. On December 26, 1944, Harriet Pickens and Frances Wills became the first female Black American officers in the United States Navy; they were commissioned into WAVES. On the day of their graduation Pickens climbs out of her bunk and exclaims to Wils, “We made it, friend!”

The US armed forces were representing the self-proclaimed “greatest democracy” in the world, fighting against Hitler and Nazi racism with Armed forces that remained segregated. Black troops were relegated to the “colored only” sections of bathrooms while their white counterparts and German prisoners of war (POWs) used the white section. Army Private Bert Babero said:

I had... to observe a sign in the latrine, actually segregating a section of the latrine for Negro soldiers, the other being used by the German prisoners and the white soldiers. Seeing this was honestly disheartening. It made me feel here, the tyrant is actually being placed over the liberator”.

The German military would even deploy Nazi propaganda leaflets to try to exploit the fact that the United States has so much racial disharmony.

A German propaganda leaflet trying to persuade Black troops to leave the fight

On 31 January 1942 the Pittsburgh Courier an Black American newspaper, published an article by James G. Thompson titled “Should I Sacrifice To Live Half-American?”. In the article the 26-year-old poses six questions:

Should I sacrifice my life to live half American?
Will things be better in the next generation for the peace to follow?
Would it be demanding too much to demand full citizenship rights in exchange for the sacrificing of my life?
Is the kind of America I know worth defending?
Will America be a true and pure democracy after this war?
Will Colored Americans suffer still the indignities that have been so heaped upon them in the past?

Thompson suggests that since the Allied countries are using the letter “V” for victory in the fight against fascism, aggression, and tyranny that Black Americans should adopt the double V symbolizing a double victory. Victory abroad against our enemies and victory at home against our enemies from within. As he says later in the article:

For surely those who perpetuate these ugly prejudices here are seeking to destroy our democratic form of government just as surely as the Axis forces.

In conclusion let me say that though these questions often permeate my mind, I love America and am willing to die for the America I know will someday become a reality.

The Double V Campaign was born. On 7 February 1942 the Pittsburgh Courier published a “Double V” insignia on the front page. Black troops embraced the idea and returned from the war ready to fight for the America they thought could be. The fight would be tough, deadly, and long-lasting.

When Black veterans returned from service they were denied G.I. Bill benefits that had earned from their sacrifice and service. While there was no language that explicitly denied benefits to Black veterans however, the legislation establishing the G.I. Bill was written intentionally to limit federal oversight and the original 1944 bill gave states all administrative responsibility for benefits. This allowed for unrestrained discrimination against Black veterans by the state governments. Black veterans were denied home loans which were guaranteed by the Veterans Administration (VA), however local banks had to issue the loans. Banks have long denied loans to Black people, even Black veterans at an exponentially higher rate than other groups. In 1947 a survey in Mississippi found that of the 3229 home, business, and farm loans administered by the VA only two went to Black veterans. In New York and the northern New Jersey suburbs less than 100 of the over 67,000 mortgages insured by the VA were issued to non-white veterans. Because of this Blacks were essentially barred from entering the middle class.

Just as was the case for Black veterans returning home from World War I, those returning from World War II were made targets because of their service, their uniform, and their dispositions in demanding fair and equal treatment under the law.

On 8 February 1946 U.S. Marine Timothy Hood was home in Bessemer, Alabama aboard a streetcar. He removed the “whites only” sign and the driver William Weeks told him to replace the sign. When Hood refused the two men got into a fight that spilled out on the street. Weeks shot Hood five times. When the police arrived on the scene they arrested Hood and put him into the back of a car where the Police Chief Green Berry Fant shot him in the head killing him. The murder was ruled “justifiable homicide".

Timothy Hood

James Stephenson

Gladys Stephenson

On 25 February 1946 in Columbia, Tennessee, 19 year old Navy veteran James Stephenson got into an altercation with a white store clerk after his mother, Gladys, had issues with the repair work done on her radio. The clerk punched Stehenson from behind as he was leaving the store. Stephenson, who was also a boxer, turned and knocked the store clerk through a window. As they continued to fight in the street, the police showed up and only arrested Stephenson and his mother. They were jailed and charged with attempted murder. The sheriff heard that a plan to lynch the Stephensons was forming amongst the white population in the city so he release them to a Black businessman who then put James on a train to Chicago and put Gladys in hiding.

A mob of white people accompained by police officers began to march into the Black community known as “the Bottom” intending to lynch the Stephensons. Unbeknownst to them Black veterans in the area had taken up sniper positions on tops of buildings in anticipation of the mob’s assault. The Black sniper shot four of the police officers that were infiltrating their community. The officers had minor injuries however the next day the Tennessee highway patrol charged into the Bottom, began beating random people, and destroying homes and businesses. The mob stole money, other property, confiscated weapons, and took 100 Black residents into custody. 67 of those arrested were released shortly after but the 33 that remained locked up were most War World II veterans and some were charged with attempted murder. Two men died while in custody.

The National Committee for Justice in Tennessee, a group that was co-chaired by First Lady Elanor Roosevelt and counted Mary McLeod Bethune, Albert Einstein and A. Philip Randolph, among their members, was formed in response to the actions in Columbia. In May 1946 Roosevelt called for the release of the 31 Black residents that were still in custody in a fundraising letter to the committee writing:

These men, more than half of their number recently discharged servicemen, have been the innocent victims of race hatred and violence.

By the fall of 1946, 25 men were still in custody related to the mob's actions. NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall went to Columbia in order to assist the attorneys on the ground to have the men released from jail. After a contentious trial Marshall and the others were able to obtain acquittals for the 23 men even before all-white juries. The other two men were convicted on lesser charges. After the trials Marshall and the other NAACP attorneys get on the road to Nashville, however before they could get too far three police cars pulled the car over. In the vehicles there were both uniformed officers and armed civilians. They falsely accused him of driving drunk and tossed him in the back of one of the cars. Instead of going to the courthouse the car turned down a dirt road where more people began to congregate. The other men in the car with Marshall followed the police cars and confronted the mob and the officer decided against lynching Marshall that day and took him to the local magistrate instead.

Letter from Elanor Roosevelt to the National Committee for Justice in Tennessee

In December 1946 in Palo Alto, California Navy veteran John T. Walker’s house was set ablaze by arsonists. The perpetrators left a note that read:

We burned your house to let you know that your presence is not wanted among white people. You should know by now we mean business. Niggers who are veterans are making a mistake thinking they can live in white residential districts. Since you are a veteran, we are warning you for the last time to clear out. If you were not a veteran, you would be dead now. Usually the Klan strikes without warning, but since you are a veteran, we have been unusually kind in giving you a chance to save of your black hide.

Isaac Woodard

Isaac Woodard and his mother

On 12 February 1946 Army veteran Isaac Woodard was on a Greyhound bus from Camp Gordon, Georgia to his hometown in North Carolina. When the bus stopped in Augusta, Georgia Woodard asked the driver if there was time for him to use the restroom. The driver cursed at him and Woodard responded asking for the same respect that he had shown the driver. The driver begrudgingly acquiesced to his request. Woodard uses the restroom and returns to his seat without incident. When the bus reached the next stop in Batesburg, South Carolina the driver left the bus and called the police chief Lynwood Shull. When Shull arrived on the scene he removed Woodard from the bus and began savagely assaulting him with a blackjack. He was arrested and while driven to the jail he was continually hit in the eyes with the officer’s nightstick. Woodard was beaten until he was unconscious. He was left in jail overnight with no medical care and fined for disorderly conduct the next morning. Woodard asked for a doctor and one was not sent to him for two days. He was taken to a hospital in Aiken, South Carolina where three weeks after the original incident his worried family finally located him. Once they saw his condition he was rushed to the Army hospital in Spartanburg, South Carolina where doctors determined that his eyes had been damaged beyond repair. After deliberating for only 15 minutes an all-white jury acquitted Shull.

On 13 February 1946 in Atlanta, Georgia Navy veteran Hugh Johnson was grabbed by the KKK and taken out to the woods where he was badly beaten and whipped.

On 8 August 1946 in Minden, Louisiana Army veteran John C. Jones and his cousin Albert Harris were accused of peeping into a white woman’s window. Jones and Harris were kidnapped by five white men and brutally beaten. Jones did not survive the assault but Harris did and eventually escaped to Detroit, Michigan. An all-white jury acquitted the men responsible.

J.C. Farmer death certificate

3 August 1946 in Wilson County, North Carolina Army veteran J.C. Farmer was waiting at a bus stop when a police officer ordered him into the back of his vehicle. Farmer stated that he had done nothing wrong and refused to get in, even after the officer pulled his gun. He and the officer started to struggle with each other, the gun went off and shot the officer through the hand. Farmer escaped to his home but within a few hours a mob of 20 white dragged him from his house and shot him with machine guns.

Eugene Bell

When Army veteran Eugene Bell returned to Amite County, Mississippi he chose to work on his father’s farm instead of the white farmers in the area. The white farmers were angered by the audacity of Bell to choose where he worked and who he worked for. On 25 August 1945 Bell was driving with a group of acquaintances when a car full of armed white men started following them. The white men then opened fire on the car causing Bell to pull over. The white men knocked one of the passengers in Bell’s car unconscious before dragging him out and beating him so badly that his skull was crushed then they executed him.

Newspaper article about the lynching of Alonza Brooks and Richard Gordon

In August 1946 in Marshall, Texas, Army veterans Alonza Brooks and Richard Gordon were murdered for having a dispute with their employers about wages. When Brooks was discovered it looked like he had been strangled. Gordon had his throat slashed, he was then tied to a car dragged through town.

Maceo Snipes

On 17 July 1946 Army veteran Maceo Snipes voted in the Georgia Democratic Primary despite threats from the KKK warning Black citizens against trying to vote. He was the only Black person in Taylor County to vote. The next day four white men arrived at the house where Snipes lived. All four men were Klan members and two of them Edward Williamson and Lynwood Harvey were WWII veterans. They confronted Snipes about his vote and Williamson shot him in the back. Snipes and his mother then walked three miles to the hospital however when they arrived the staff did not treat him for six hours. The staff claimed they did not have any “Black blood”. Snipes would die from his wounds two days later. An all-white jury acquitted the killer.

Mae Murray Dorsey and George W. Dorsey (on the left) and Roger Malcom and Dorothy Malcom (on the right)

On 11 July 1946, Roger Malcolm, a sharecropper, allegedly stabbed a white man that worked with him and was arrested. On 25 July, the J. Loy Harrison, white man that owned the farm where Malcolm worked with his wife Dorothy and another Black couple – Army veteran George Dorsey and his wife Mae – bailed Malcolm out of jail and was driving the two couples back to the farm. As they drove there was a mob of about 15 to 20 armed men near the Moore’s Ford Bridge blocking the road. The men demanded that Black couples be given to them. They tied the couple together against an oak tree and shot them over 100 times. Dorothy, who was about 8 months pregnant, had her womb cut open and the baby fell to the ground where a member of the murderous mob crushed the skull with his boot. Although none of the men were wearing masks or hoods, Harrison claimed he was unable to identify anyone. The case officially remains unsolved

In June 1947 in Sardis, Georgia Navy veteran Joe Nathan Roberts was visiting family, when he angered a group of white men. They were angry because he refused to call them “sir”. They came to his parents’ house and grabbed him out and fatally shot him.

Isaiah Nixon

On 8 September 1948 Army veteran Isaiah Nixon voted in a special election in Montgomery County, Georgia. Later that evening two white men, J.A. and Johnnie Johnson came to his home and gunned down the 28 year-old father. They were acquitted by an all-white jury.

Lemuel Penn

On 11 July 1964 Army veteran Lemuel Penn was driving from Fort Benning, Georgia to Washington D.C.when he was spotted by three KKK members. The racist pulled up beside Penn and fired a shotgun into his car killing him instantly. The murderers were acquitted by an all-white jury.

Medgar Evers

On 12 June 1963 in Jackson, Mississippi Army veteran and NAACP field secretary Medgar Evers was returning home with a handful of t-shirts that said “Jim Crow Must Go”, when he was assassinated by Marine veteran Byron De La Beckwith who was a member of the KKK. It took until 1994 to convict De La Beckwith of the murder of Evers.

On 31 January 1964 in Amite County, Mississippi Army veteran Louis Allen was murdered after he agreed to testify against state legislator E.H. Hurst. Hurst murdered Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) supporter Herbert Lee. Officially the murder remains unsolved.

Despite the disrespect, discrimination, and death, the soldiers, sailors, and Marines that returned from service in the second world war with the determination to continue the long struggle for freedom... for victory abroad and at home.

References